2.THE MODERN STATE

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As a result of the increase in agricultural and artisanal production and commercial profits, there was a growth in disposable wealth and proceeds from taxes. These factors brought important political consequences.

• They formed powerful armies of mercenaries (paid soldiers), which they used to subdue the nobles who confronted them. In time, they prohibited the nobles from forming their own armies. They also created a diplomatic body to establish alliances with other states or kingdoms.
• They strengthened bureaucracy which was composed of officials directly under their control, who supervised the kingdom's affairs. In this way, the monarchs were able to maintain effective control of their possessions.
• They centralised power by creating new institutions to serve them. The power of the centralised institutions was gradually increased and the autonomy of the feudal lords and special legislations introduced in the Middle Ages was gradually reduced.
• The monarchs established a court or permanent seat for these new institutions to function well. In many cases, these became the capital of their kingdom.

The weak feudal monarchy of the Middle Ages became a powerful authoritarian monarchy, which the nobility had to obey to the same extent as the rest of the social groups.

The new political organisation which emerged as a result of these reforms is called the modern state.

The most powerful monarchies at the beginning of the Early Modern Age were: the Spanish (resulting from the union of the kingdoms of Castilla and Aragón), Portuguese (pioneers in the search for new trade routes), the French, English and Russian monarchies.

The territories that form part of present-day Italy and Germany remained divided into small states during the whole of the Early Modern Age. They were areas of great economic or strategic importance, so the most powerful authoritarian monarchies of the continent argued over their control. The became the scene of numerous wars.

EUROPE AT THE END OF THE 15TH CENTURY

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Eastern Europe

• The Ottoman (Turkish) Empire expanded during the 15th century. Mehmed II ‘the Conqueror took control of Constantinople and a large part of the Balkan Peninsula. Selim I then conquered Syria, Egypt and part of Arabia. Suleiman I ‘the Magnificent took control of northern Africa and subdued Hungary, but he was stopped in Austria by the German Emperor.
• The Russian monarchy expanded its territories with the conquests of Ivan III ‘the Great in the 15th century and Ivan IV ‘the Terrible in the 16th century. The Russian monarchs adopted the title of tsar or emperor.
• The Polish monarchy covered extensive territories after its unification with Lithuania. However, it was a weak, not very centralised, kingdom.